This study examined airplane pilots' preferences for and their operational experiences with the three different piloting automation strategies of management-by-consent, management-by-exception, and full automation. 206 airline pilots (mean ages 44.1-51.5 years) completed surveys. Results show that subjects expressed a strong preference for management-by-consent, in which the automatic mechanism cannot take action unless explicit pilot consent has been received. Control was most cited as the primary reason for that choice. High time pressure, high workload, and low task critically led to a shift in subjects' preferences toward management-by-exception, in which the automation can initiate actions on its own. 78.2% of subjects reported a prior experience of being surprised by automation. Substantial numbers of subjects reported that automation override was either too easy or too difficult, or both. (A)
Abstract