Abstract
Smartcards provide a significant number of benefits, both to the card holder and for the background processes involved. Fraud, in particular, is a threat that is significantly reduced as smartcards are almost impossible to copy, whilst cards that are lost or stolen can easily be identified and removed permanently from the system, the result of which is that they are of no use to anyone once they have been deactivated. Smartcards can significantly reduce boarding times, particularly when combined with card-readable Point of Service Terminals (POSTs), subsequently reducing driver workload, journey times and removing a potential monetary transaction element from travel.