Congestion caused by traffic is a major cause of air pollution in cities. Measures to reduce traffic congestion in cities have included the alternative number plate scheme, car pooling and banning traffic from certain areas of a city on certain days. Road pricing remains the most effective way to address congestion. The Road User Charging (RUC) model most commonly used in cities is the cordon charge, where users pay for travel through specific zones. This model is used in the London Congestion Charge, UK, where the system is based on automatic number plate recognition and a camera cordon around the charging zone. Public opposition to the charge remains strong. Stockholm, Sweden has introduced a system based on dedicated short range communications (DSRC) combined with ANPR allowing a variable charging system. A key element of a more effective solution would be a pricing programme that 'bundles' private and public transport into a single system using an onboard unit and a smart card. Such systems have been introduced in Beijing, China and Turin, Italy.
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