Electric Vehicles (EVs) are a promising technology for drastically reducing the environmental burden of road transport. More than a decade ago and also more recently, they were advocated by various actors as an important element in reducing emissions of CO2, air pollutants and noise of particularly passenger cars and light commercial vehicles. At the same time, the electric passenger cars that are being developed are not yet competitive with conventional vehicle technology. Costs are still high and battery technology is still being developed, and there exist many uncertainties with respect to crucial issues such as: * Battery technology (energy capacity in relation to vehicle range, charging speed, durability, availability and environmental impacts of materials). * Well—to-wheel impacts on emissions. * Interaction with electricity generation. * Cost and business case of large scale introduction. For EU policy makers, it is important to get a reliable and independent assessment of the state of the art of these issues in order to develop targeted and appropriate greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction policy for transport. Therefore the Directorate-General for Climate Action (DG CLIMA) commissioned CE Delft, ICF and Ecologic to carry out a study on the potential impacts of large scale market penetration of EVs in the EU, with a focus on passenger cars and light commercial vehicles. This study includes an assessment of both the transport part (e.g. composition of vehicle fleet) and electricity production and provides estimates of the impacts on well-to-wheel GHG emissions, pollutant emissions, other environmental impacts, costs, etc. In this study three types of EVs are distinguished: 1) Full Electric Vehicles (FEVs) that have an electric engine and batteries for energy storage, no internal combustion engine (ICE). 2) Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) that have both an ICE and an electric engine, with a battery that can be charged on the grid. 3) Electric Vehicles with a Range Extender (EREVs) that have an electric engine and an ICE that can be used to charge the battery and so extend the vehicle’s range. The battery of an EREV can be charged on the grid. The results of the study should help the European Commission with developing GHG policy for transport, in particular in the field of EV and in relation to the wider EU transport policy and EU policy for the electricity sector. (Author/publisher) This report may be accessed by Internet users at http://www.ce.nl/
Samenvatting